In his History of the Peloponnesian War the historian Thucydides tells of the outbreak of a plague at Athens in the second year of the conflict. He says that the disease first began in Ethiopia and from there passed to Egypt and Libya before spreading throughout the Persian Empire. Only then did it make its first appearance at Athens, breaking out first in the port of Piraeus in the early summer of 430 B.C E. and then making its appearance in the upper city.
Devastating Illness
The disease’s rapid spread at Athens was helped by the overcrowded conditions resulting from the entire population of the countryside living inside the walls of the city due to the war. The plague also broke out at other places in Greece but nowhere was it as severe as at Athens.
No one was spared from the disease. According to some estimates as much as a third of the population of Athens may have died from the plague. Social order suffered and Athens’ war effort was also affected as many of their soldiers fell sick and perished from the illness. After two years the plague lapsed for a bit before returning for one last deadly round in 426.
Identifying the Cause
Modern historians and medical professionals have attempted to discover what infectious agent may have been responsible for the plague. Until recently the only thing they had to go on was Thucydides’ list of symptoms, which include a high fever, cough, chest pain, vomiting, skin eruptions and diarrhea. Since many diseases produce such symptoms this was a difficult process. Many different theories have surfaced over the years ranging from Bubonic Plague to common illnesses like the measles and exotic disease like Dengue Fever and Ebola.
Recently a mass grave was discovered in Athens that is believed to contain the remains of plague victims. For the first time it was possible to conduct a clinical test to determine a cause. A positive result was obtained from some samples for the bacillus that causes typhoid fever. It was announced that typhoid fever was the probable cause of the plague. However, this claim has been attacked on the basis of inadequate testing procedures and other factors. Also the test could not detect the presence of viruses and viral diseases could not be ruled out.
Infuenza and Staphyloccus
Pandemic influenza was first suggested as the cause of the Athenian plague in 1974. In 1985 it was suggested that pandemic influenza in combination with a secondary staphylococcus infection was the cause. Modern flu pandemics have demonstrated that the disease often strikes quickly, spreads rapidly, effects young adults very severely, and can produce death rates approaching that of Athens’ plague in small concentrated areas when untreated and no or little measures are taken to prevent its spread. It has also been shown that the actual killer is not the flu itself, but secondary infections, especially bacterial pneumonia which is caused by the staphylococcus bacteria. The similarities to the palgue that struck Athens are striking.
While many of the symptoms of pandemic flu and bacterial pneumonia match those described by Thucydides of the plague victims not all do. The most noticeable difference is that Thucydides mentions gangrene of the extremities; neither the flu nor bacterial pneumonia is known to produce such an effect.
Conclusions
Given that many diseases can mutate rapidly and that 2500 years have passed since the event, any attempt to identify the cause of the Athenian plague on the basis of Thucydides' description alone is bound to be problematic. Barring the discovery of any more graves of plague victims or the development of more inclusive clinical tests, this mystery may never be solved.
Sources:
Thucydides, Book 2, Chapters 48-53. The Landmark Thucydides: A Comprhensive Guide to the Peloponnesian War. Robert B. Strassler, ed. NY, The Free Press, 1996.
David, Eric Michael. The Good and the Bad Dying Indiscriminately: The Athenian Plague Reconsidered. The Pharos, Spring 2000.
