The Philosophical Origins Of A Liberal Education

Imperial Athens And The Rise Of The Sophists

Oct 4, 2009

During the 5th Century B.C.E., Athens had become the capital city of a powerful Empire, as well as a democracy and a center of philosophical thought.

For centuries in Ancient Greece, a wealthy aristocracy had ruled over the Athenian city-state. Only these select few members of the nobility had any true knowledge of politics or statesmanship, while the rest of the populace remained uninvolved in the governing process. Then, in 451 B.C.E., when the elder statesman, Pericles, legislated the creation of democratic institutions, all adult men were expected to play a role in the governance of the city-state. The Athenians soon realized that these new citizens would have to be educated in order to enable them to participate effectively in this new political system.

At this time in Greece there was no tradition of public education, and scholarly activities were reserved for the traditional ruling nobility who, because of their station, had the time for such leisure activities. What the Athenians did have was a navy that traversed the Mediterranean at will, creating an easy path for immigration. The Imperial city’s need for tutors and instructors was met by an influx of those of varied backgrounds, who sought their fortunes providing education in the Athenian capital.

The Sophists

The individuals who traveled to Athens from around the Mediterranean world in order to teach the fledgling democrats called themselves Sophists, which means intellectuals. They carried with them information from far flung societies and brought it together in Athens to form the foundation of a new educational system.

Early philosophers such as Pythagoras and Zeno had already spent decades attempting to define the nature of reality, and although some brilliant theories were offered, a pallor of skepticism overshadowed any hope of uncovering natures ultimate truth. This new class of professional teacher, founded on the need to provide Athenian citizens with a basic body of knowledge, not only brought with it foreign concepts, but also reflected the progress made by these early thinkers.

Eventually the underlying notion that any Universal Truth is ultimately impossible to prove would give rise to an entire philosophical school of thought that would come into its own with the Sophists. This skepticism was particularly manifested when thinkers tried to fathom the human condition. In Athens, as scholars began to compare the wide variety of cultures, each exhibiting different social norms, some concluded that just as there is no Universal Truth to be discovered in nature, there is also no Moral Truth with which to guide a society in its growth.

Protagoras And The Limits Of Perception

One of the most influential of the Sophists was Protagoras, who came from Abdera in Thrace. Protagoras is best known for his saying that, “Man is the measure of all things.” It was with this statement that he indicated his belief that no matter what humans try to learn or comprehend, they will always be limited to mere human perception. Further underlying this is the understanding that each individual is inherently limited to their own perceptions, and therefore nothing can be definitively determined.

As Protagoras was a professional, and did wish to undermine his ability to teach in Athens, his philosophy of uncertainty did have its limits. While the logical conclusion of his arguments would have led his students to question every social and political institution as meaningless, Protagoras suggested that laws do have a purpose and should be followed. Even with all of the freedom that comes with the realization that knowledge is reliant on the individual, he taught that societies have constructed laws and social norms because these are the best solutions that can be offered.

Gorgias and Thrasymachus

Gorgias was another Sophist who took his conclusions to a new extreme. After spending his early years studying philosophy, Gorgias believed he had proved the unknowable nature of reality and therefore abandoned the quest for truth. Gorgias went on to teach rhetoric, which he sought to use as a tool of persuasion. Believing in no truth, Gorgias saw the only logical course was to use persuasive techniques to convince others to believe what you want them to.

Another Sophist who appears in Plato’s Republic, advocating for injustice, is Thrasymachus. Thrasymachus outlines the basic argument for “might makes right.”Taking the teachings of Gorgias even a step further, Thrasymachus believed that persuasion is not necessary, and that the right thing to be done is for the strong to simply impose their will upon the weak.

It was the evolution of such thoughts as those voiced by Thrasymachus in the Republic, which eventually would give rise to the thinking of Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, philosophers who all believed in the existence of a universal truth. Although western philosophy and its educational tradition often traces its roots back to Socrates, it is indeed the Sophists who laid the foundations which compelled future thinkers to action. To this day, Western Civilization is split between those who see the individual as the final arbiter, and those who believe that only as a cooperative unit can humans truly thrive in a society.

Stumpf, Samuel. Socrates to Sartre; A History of Philosophy (New York, McGraw Hill, 1966)

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